Understanding the ABC Model

The core element of behavior modification is the ABC model of behavior:

Antecedents                              Behavior                            Consequences

The ABC model specifies that behavior is triggered by a set of Antecedents (something that precedes behavior and is causally linked to the behavior) and followed by Consequences (outcome of the behavior for the individual) that increase or decrease the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated. The Antecedents are necessary but not sufficient for the behavior to occur. The Consequences explain why people adopt a particular behavior.

ABC model of Behavior
Antecedents	Behaviors	Consequences
Causal event (trigger) preceding the behavior	An observable thing that someone does or doesn’t do	The outcome of the behavior for the individual that influences the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated
A	B	C
Hear telephone ringing	Lift telephone receiver	Have an interesting conversation with a friend
A	B	C
Hear telephone ringing	Do not lift the receiver; let the answering machine pick-up message	Continue working uninterrupted

 

The example above illustrates several points.

Firstly, it demonstrates the role of Antecedents because if the individual did not hear the telephone, they would not pick up the telephone receiver.

Secondly, it highlights the fact that it is the consequences for the individual that drive their behavior because, in both instances, the individuals heard the telephone ring, but in the second, the person did not lift the receiver because working uninterrupted was, for them, a more positive consequence than conversing with a friend.

ABC analysis facilitates the identification of ways to change behavior by ensuring the appropriate antecedents are in place, and the consequences support the desired behavior.

The ABC model is equally applicable to promoting health and safety behaviors. For example, ABC analysis could be conducted to investigate why workers do not currently wear their hearing protection in noisy environments (see table above) and identify how to promote the wearing of hearing protection and thus reduce hearing damage.

Example of ABC analysis
Antecedents	Behaviors	Consequences
Hearing protection supplied by the company Required by the company to wear hearing protection in specific areas Knowledge of potential damage to hearing if hearing protection is not worn Signs highlight areas where hearing protection is needed Noisy environment …etc.	Wearing hearing protection in noisy environments	Reduces the likelihood of hearing loss in the future Less likely to get into trouble with management for not wearing hearing protection Difficulty hearing their radio Discomfort of wearing hearing protection …etc.
Peers do not wear hearing protection The knowledge that rules on wearing hearing protection is not enforced …etc.	Not wearing hearing protection in noisy environments	Impaired hearing in the future Avoid the discomfort of wearing hearing protection Able to hear better in a noisy environment …etc.

The example in the table above shows the complexity of behavioral analysis. In this example, the antecedents are in place for the desired behavior to occur, as employees are supplied with hearing protection, they are required to wear them, signs highlight where they are needed, and they know that noise may damage their hearing. Although the antecedents are in place, many staff do not wear their hearing protection because they find the consequences of not wearing their hearing protection more attractive (reinforcing) than the consequences of wearing their hearing protection.

 

Antecedents Trigger Behavior

Antecedents come before the behavior and help to trigger the behavior. Examples of antecedents include rules and procedures, suitable tools and equipment, information, signs, skills and knowledge, training and knowledge of other people’s expectations etc.

Whilst antecedents are necessary to help trigger behavior, their presence does not guarantee a behavior will occur. For example, the existence of safety rules and procedures does not ensure safe behavior will occur. However, in the example in Table 1, providing antecedents such as knowledge about the long-term effects of noise exposure on hearing and signs indicating where ear defenders should be worn is important in helping to trigger the desired, safe behavior.

Antecedents are necessary for a behavior to occur but are not sufficient to ensure the behavior is maintained over time. To maintain a behavior over time also requires significant individual consequences.

 

How Consequences drive Behavior

Consequences are defined as the outcome of the behavior for the individual that influences the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated. Therefore, the frequency of a behavior can be increased or decreased by altering the consequences following that behavior.

There are three main types of consequences that influence behavior. These are:

1. Positive reinforcement,
2. Negative reinforcement
3. Punishment

Positive and negative reinforcement increases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated, while punishment reduces the likelihood.

Types of Consequences
Consequences that INCREASE behavior
Positive reinforcement	Negative reinforcement
Receive something that you want	Avoid something you do not want
Consequences that DECREASE behavior
Punishment	Punishment
Receive something you do not want	Receive something you do not want

The above consequences can be used separately or together to change behavior.

For example, the frequency of managers conducting site tours could be increased by:

• Positive reinforcement: superiors praising managers after they conduct tours
• Negative reinforcement: avoid disapproval from peers for not conducting tours
• Punishment: Managers’ bonuses are reduced if tours are not conducted

Examples of the different types of consequences
Positive reinforcement	Negative reinforcement	Punishment
Positive feedback about achievement	Avoidance of peer disapproval	Removal of benefits
Recognition from manager	Avoidance of pain	Disciplinary action
Praise from colleagues	Avoidance of the loss of financial reward	Physical pain or injury
Prizes	Avoidance of financial penalty/fine	Feeling guilty

 

Although both positive and negative reinforcement increases the frequency of a behavior, they do not produce the same results. Negative reinforcement produces just enough of a behavior to avoid something unpleasant. Positive reinforcement produces more behavior than required; in other words, it taps into an employee’s discretionary effort. The discretionary effort involves doing more than the minimum required and maximizing performance because a person “wants to” rather than “has to.”

Reinforcement and punishment are defined by their effect, so if a consequence does not reduce the frequency of a behavior, it is not punishment, and similarly, if it does not increase the behavior it is not reinforcing. In fact, the same act could be a reinforcer for one person or in one situation and a punishment in another. It can often be the case that the consequence has the opposite impact than that intended by the person delivering the consequence.

This is the case because the impact of a consequence on behavior is not determined by the specific act or the intention of the individual delivering the consequence but by the person performing the behavior.

For example, a manager wanted to recognize and reward an employee for their involvement in a safety improvement project. They invited the employee to an evening dinner and award ceremony and presented a golf weekend for two as a prize.

Despite the manager’s intention to provide positive reinforcement, the prize did not have the intended effect as the recipient, a single parent, found difficulty in getting childcare to attend the evening dinner and was preoccupied thinking about his children. He did not use the prize as he had no partner to take, could not leave his children, and did not play golf.

As the example illustrates, one of the most problematic aspects of using behavior modification to change behavior is selecting consequences that other people will find reinforcing. What we personally find rewarding or reinforcing may not have the same effect on others. It is therefore important to gain insight into what the person or people whose behavior you are seeking to change are likely to find reinforcing.

The greater the understanding or insight about what is important to the group or person whose behavior is targeted for change, the easier it is to choose appropriate reinforcers.

There are a number of strategies that can be employed to identify effective reinforcers.

These include:

• Involving the target individual or group in determining the consequences
• Observing what the individual or group chooses to do when they have a choice. The work tasks they actively choose can be used to reinforce less desirable activities.

To use ABC analysis with complex behaviors requires a limited number of criteria to assess

the impact of a consequence. Three (3) major factors influence the impact that consequences have on the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated and these are described in the table below.

Factors influencing the impact of consequences on behavior
	Timeframe	Predictability	Significance
Large impact on behavior	Soon	Certain	Important to Individual
Limited impact on behavior	Distant	Uncertain	Unimportant to individual

 

In general ABC analysis will reveal that the consequences reinforcing the current behavior are soon, certain, and important and the punishments (if there are any) are distant, uncertain, and unimportant. In contrast, if this analysis is conducted on the behavior that is currently not being practiced, it is likely to reveal that the reinforcing consequences (if there are any) are distant, uncertain, and unimportant while the punishments are soon, certain, and important.

 

It is the Consequences for the Individual that matter

It is the consequences for the individual carrying out the behavior that drives their behavior and not the consequences for others. For example, consider the consequences of not conducting laborious quality checks of a hazardous product before it is dispatched to clients, for (a) the employee and (b) the client. The immediate and certain reinforcing consequence for the employee of not conducting the quality checks is to avoid a monotonous task, balanced against the distant and uncertain punishment of losing their job. The consequence for the client is a substandard hazardous product that increases the likelihood of a major accident. The behavior of the individual who is supposed to perform the task is determined by the consequences for them personally, not the consequence to others, i.e., the client.

Therefore, in this example, if there are no monitoring systems in place to check the employee’s work there may be no consequence for performing the checks and positive consequences for not performing the checks. If this is the case, some people may not perform the checks.

On the other hand, for an employee with high professional standards, the negative personal consequences of not conducting the quality checks, namely not living up to their own high standards, may outweigh the temptation to avoid the laborious task. In this example, if the employee omitted the quality check; they would feel uncomfortable as their behavior conflicted with their high professional standards. The discomfort caused by a discrepancy between one’s own attitudes or values and behavior is known as “cognitive dissonance”, and leads to either attitudes/values or behavior changing to become more congruent. To promote professional behavior, management would therefore need to provide antecedents to trigger professional conduct (e.g., training, knowledge, membership of professional bodies, expectations) and consequences that reinforce professional behavior (e.g., recognition, funding, promotion).

 

A common mistake when attempting to influence other people’s behavior is to stop providing reinforcement and encouragement when the SAFE behavior occurs once. For the new behavior to become a HABIT, reinforcement must be provided consistently over an extended period. On the other hand, if reinforcement is quickly withdrawn, the new behavior may cease.